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Since at least the 1970s, a number of innovative approaches to
teaching English grammar have been developed and implemented. One of
these is construction grammar, which focuses on the form-and-meaning
connections in the structure of English. Construction grammar is usually
associated with various linguistic theories and cognitive linguistics,
and it presents a language model that is based on actual and real-life
usage. This analytical perspective emerged primarily due to the
inability of classical theories to account for linguistic formulas,
idioms, and collocations (sequences of two or more words that are often
used together in speech or writing), for example, do nothing,
do business, get a haircut, have a drink, have a
problem, have/take a vacation, see/call/get a
doctor. Many studies of language and
corpus analyses have demonstrated clearly that collocations and
formulaic constructions dominate in language production and use. This
article takes a brief look at the basic premises of construction grammar
and its contribution to language teaching, and more specifically to
second language (L2) production skills, that is, speaking and writing.
In language investigations, the term "construction" typically
refers to a linguistic form with a particular grammatical function.
Constructions can be as short as a phrase or as long as a sentence
(Hilpert, 2014). Theoretical models describe grammar as an ordered
arrangement of incremental linguistic elements, from which phrases or
sentences are assembled. However, most current theoretical and
pedagogical grammars have trouble explaining constructions that cannot
be created (or generated) systematically in the process of language
production (e.g., to give a hand, heavy fog/snow/rain, to do
the heavy lifting, strong wind/feeling/argument, to keep one's job, to
keep at it, to take a chance). To make a long story short
(this is also a collocation), collocations and formulaic expressions are
segments of language in which the meaning of the whole is not a sum of
the meanings of their component parts (Wray, 2002).
For many L2 users, one of the major problems—even at advanced
levels of proficiency—is that they have limited access to formulaic
language. Because collocations and prefabricated expressions cannot be
pieced together from their component parts, unidiomatic constructions
can and often do simply sound "wrong" (Wilkins, 1972), even when they
are often entirely comprehensible (e.g., *to agree to/on the
argument, *to differ the points, *to concentrate the essay).
Numerous studies of learner language have shown that formulaic
sequences and prefabricated expressions are almost always underused,
overused, or misused in L2 production (Hinkel, 2015). In addition,
research has also demonstrated that, for most learners, mastering and
using L2 formulaic sequences tends to lag far behind the development of
other production skills. A few explanations of this phenomenon have been
proposed, and two seem to be cited more frequently than the rest
(Schmitt & Carter, 2004):
- Collocations and formulaic
expressions may not be effectively addressed in teaching, and in some
cases, hardly at all.
- Such constructions
are often left out of spoken or written language addressed to learners,
and thus their exposure to collocations can be noticeably reduced.
The central aspect of construction grammar is that a
great deal of language usage consists of prefabricated and
collocational constructions. In this light, constructions represent
meaningful units of language that characterize spoken and written
discourse. A construction is a unit that connects grammatical structures
and their meanings. Proficient users of the language by definition have
the knowledge of grammar that allows them to link specific structures
to express certain meanings. For instance, How are you
today? or How's everything going? are not
actual questions, despite their interrogative form, but rather they have
the interactional function of casual greetings.
Based on a large body of research, it has been established that
language-in-use consists primarily of recurrent collocations and
formulaic expressions that are accessed and employed as if they were
single words, rather than structures assembled according to the rules of
grammar. According to analyses of written and spoken corpora,
collocations and prefabricated phrases can number in hundreds of
thousands. It goes without saying that language instruction, however
detailed, cannot cover the entire range of these expressions. However,
many can be useful for learners and particularly so in the context of
productive skills.
Given that language teaching almost always takes place under
great time and curricular constraints, it seems essential to maximize
language gains, develop fluency, and make learning as efficient as
possible. A range of research-based and time-tested techniques for using
constructions and formulaic expressions can prove to be highly fruitful
and practical in both language teaching and learning.
A few examples of constructions that can be taught at
practically any level of proficiency are presented below. It is
important to note, however, that there are probably dozens of these that
can be taught, learned, and produced in real-life language
uses.
- A few constructions for formal situations and academic
speaking (professional conversations, presentations, meetings, and
interviews):
Giving an Example
Let me give an example (of)…
To illustrate this point, let us consider…
I'd like to mention/bring your attention to xxx, as an example
A case in point is…
By way of illustration…/To illustrate, simply (take a) look at…
An example includes/A few examples include
- A few constructions for formal or academic writing (course
assignments and papers, professional emails, job applications,
documents, and reports):
Thesis/Topic Statements
The purpose of this essay/paper/analysis/overview is to xxx
e.g., take a look at/examine/discuss yyy.
The main emphasis/focus/goal/purpose of the/this essay/paper/project is to xxx
e.g., is to analyze/provide an overview/discussion of xxx
This paper describes and analyzes…xxx.
This paper discusses/examines/investigates xxx.
This paper claims/shows that xxx is/is not yyy.
References
Hilpert, M. (2014). Construction grammar and its
application to English. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University
Press.
Hinkel, E. (2015). Effective curriculum for teaching
L2 writing: Principles and techniques. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Schmitt, N., & Carter, R. (2004). Formulaic sequences
in action: An introduction. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), Formulaic
sequences (pp. 1–22). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Wilkins, D. (1972). Linguistics in language teaching. London, England: Edward Arnold.
Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic language and the
lexicon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Eli Hinkel has taught ESL and applied linguistics, as
well as trained teachers, for almost thirty five years and has published
numerous books and articles on learning second culture, and second
language grammar, writing, and pragmatics in such journals as TESOL
Quarterly, Applied Linguistics, Journal of Pragmatics, and Applied
Language Learning. She is also the editor of the Routledge ESL &
Applied Linguistics Professional Series of books and textbooks for
teachers and graduate students.In her spare time, she walks on water and
occasionally on a tight rope between two skyscrapers. |
