French Immersion programs have been a part of the educational landscape across Canada since the passage of the Official Languages Act in1969 and the articulation of the framework of multiculturalism and bilingualism in 1971. In Western Canada, Alberta in particular, an offshoot initiative of the French Immersion educational concept has been the development of alternative bilingual language programs such as English-Chinese, English-German and English-Spanish. Similar to French Immersion, this bilingual model is additive in intent, with the purpose of developing strong language competencies and literacy in two languages. This bilingual model also recognizes and supports a range of other educational, purposes, such as the growth of intercultural understanding. The provincial programs of study are designed for learners with no previous knowledge of the language, consequently bilingual programs are accessible to all students; with entry points at kindergarten and grade 1 (Alberta Education, 2012). There is less instructional time allotted to the additional language within a bilingual program than within French Immersion, as all programs must offer a minimum of 50% of instructional time in an official language (English or French). At the junior and senior high levels, instructional time in the additional language is generally 35% and 25%, respectively. (Alberta Education, 2006; 2007)

From the outset, bilingual programs have been strongly impacted by the traditional pedagogy of French Immersion, including strict segregation of learning by language and subject. The notion of creating a dual-language space for explicitly comparing and contrasting languages has not been considered best pedagogical practice, with the view that translation or code switching threatens L2 language growth (Cummins, 2000). The current article examines the emergent Spanish Bilingual program within the primary school context in one urban school district, and highlights challenges faced in light of the current research emphasizing the need to move away from the monolingual solitude assumption (Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Cummins, 1979; Cummins, 2005; Duibhir & Cummins, 2012; Garcia & Sylvan, 2011). Drawing upon emerging theory on integrated models of language learning, ie. the strongly supported view of language-as-a-resource (Escamilla & Hopewell, 2009) and the counterbalanced approach to language learning (Lyster, 2011), researchers discuss the need to inform practice around evolving bilingual pedagogy and literacy acquisition. They highlight the learning potential associated with the theory of linguistic interdependence (Cummins, 2001), and recognize metalinguistic awareness as being central to the learning process (Duibhir & Cummins, 2012).

The Spanish Bilingual program, while experiencing consistently strong growth, has encountered a series of unique pedagogical constraints, which are partially rooted in the two solitudes assumption (Howatt, 1984; Cummins, 1979, 2008). First, by segregating languages of instruction into compartmentalized subject areas, English and Spanish are not integrated into a shared learning space, which could otherwise enhance students’ ability to express their thought processes and to deepen knowledge creation across and between languages (Celic, C. & Seltzer K., 2013). Second, when student curiosity is not peaked through relevant cross-curricular work, motivation decreases (Friesen & Jardine, 2009); which in turn conversely impacts language learning (Cummins, 2011; Lyster, 2011). Third, the segregation of languages and subject areas restrict teachers’ abilities to plan inter-disciplinary inquiry projects, and to assess students’ literacy skills considering the entire scope of their linguistic abilities (Cummins, 2005; Escamilla & Hopewell, 2009; Soltero, Escamilla & Hopewell, 2010).

A three part research study was carried out within the Spanish Bilingual program. Researchers explored three questions addressing both the perspectives of student learning and teacher learning.

Part I: How can the introduction of dual language books be used as an instructional strategy in the Spanish Bilingual classroom, for strengthening young emerging bilinguals’ explicit awareness of both English and Spanish?

Part 2: What are the emerging language pedagogy needs of teachers as they foster a holistic learning approach in an English/Spanish second language, inquiry-based context? What is the nature of professional learning support needed to leverage a shift in bilingual pedagogy, that has as its central objective both student engagement and academic success including literacy in two languages?

Part 3: How can authentic task design within a multi-grade bilingual classroom strengthen cross-linguistic transfer and bilingual identities?

The research for Part 1 involved 102 students in K-1 classes and four teachers and parents. Over a two year period, four students and 60 teaching staff members were involved in Part 2 and Part 3 was conducted in a grade ¾ split-class with 23 students and one teacher. Data analysis was conducted of teacher focus group reflections and teacher video interviews, student interviews and questionnaires, and in class observations of dual language book reading sessions and questionnaires.

Results and Recommendations

Part 1: When students within the early years bilingual context are provided with strategic mini-readings of dual language books, and when languages are displayed on the interactive whiteboard so that comparisons can be made as a class, students develop sophisticated metalinguistic awareness. This metalinguistic awareness supports not only strong second language learning, but also enhances students’ knowledge of their first language.

Part 2: Data confirms that when learning in holistic contexts, students’ cross linguistic transfer is strong and there is evidence of growing metalinguistic awareness. Teachers identified the need for articulating appropriate second language acquisition strategies within this context and for facilitating student collaboration environments. As well, teachers identified the need for expertise on L2 pedagogical approaches and for collaborative inquiry and peer coaching opportunities.

Part 3: Students’ engagement through meaningful, relevant inquiry is the most significant indicator of their level of engagement with the second language. This is best supported through multi-disciplinary work which intentionally enlists both L1 and L2 in the creation of cross-linguistic knowledge transfer and strategically and explicitly develops features of L2.

Based on the findings of the three part research study, a strong argument is presented to consider the following recommendations:

1. Re-structure the current allotment of subjects by language, and allow for more flexible language scheduling. Inter-disciplinary and inter-linguistic inquiry must allow for the inclusion of both languages, across and through the curriculum in such a way that L2 is both supported and strengthened by L1.
2. Negotiate a shared professional understanding for the role of interlanguage, translanguaging and translation within bilingual classrooms.
3. Design learning to include guided and explicit development of metalinguistic strategies, such as using dual language readings and student-authored dual language books within a balanced bilingual literacy program.
4. Develop a long-term strategy for the development and recruitment of bilingual and bicultural early years teachers, who are pedagogically trained for content learning across languages and subjects.
5. Create a system-wide professional network of teachers to develop an aligned vision of re-conceptualized language learning pedagogy in the bilingual context.

References

Alberta Education (2006). Memorandum of understanding between the department of education of the province of Alberta and the ministry of education and science of the kingdom of Spain. Edmonton: Alberta.

Alberta Education (2007). School administrator’s guide to implementing language programming. Edmonton, Alberta. ISBN 978–0–7785–6141–5

Alberta Education Guide to Education 2012-13. Edmonton, Alberta. Retrieved from website http://education.alberta.ca/admin/resources/guidetoed.aspx

Celic, C. & Seltzer K. (2013). Translanguaging: A CUNY NYSIEB guide for educators. New York: CUNY - NYSIEB, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York. Retrieved from http://www.nysieb.ws.gc.cuny.edu/files/2013/03/Translanguaging-Guide-March-2013.pdf

Creese, Adrian and Blackledge, Adrian. 2010. Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching? Modern Language Journal 94 (i), 103-115.

Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children.Review of Educational Research, 49, 222-251.

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Cummins, J. (2001). Negotiating Identities: Education for Empowerment in a Diverse Society. Los Angeles, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.

Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action; strategies for recognizing heritage language competencies as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. Modern Language Journal, 89, 585-592.

Cummins, J. (2008). Teaching for transfer: Challenging the two solitudes assumption in bilingual education. In J. Cummins & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Vol. 5. Bilingual education (2nd ed., pp. 65–75). Boston: Springer

Cummins, J. (2011). The power of pedagogy: negotiating the identities of competencies in the language classroom. ECML Conference: Graz.

Duibhir, P.O., & Cummins, J. (2012).Towards an integrated language curriculum in early childhood and primary education (3-12 years). (ISSN 1649-3362). Dublin: Ireland. [Prepared for the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment].

Escamilla, K., & Hopewell, S. (2009). Transitions to biliteracy: creating positive academic trajectories for emerging bilinguals in the United States. International Perspectives on Bilingual Education: Policy, Practice and Controversy, 65-90.

Friesen, S., & Jardine, D. (2009). 21st century learning and learners. Galileo Educational Network and University of Calgary. [Prepared for Western and Northern Canadian Curriculum Protocol]

Garcia, O., & Sylvan, C.E. (2011). Pedagogies and practices in multilingual classrooms: singularities in pluralities. The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), 385-400. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01208.x0026

Howatt, A. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Lyster, R. (2011). Content-based second language teaching.In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning, Vol. 2 (pp. 611-630). New York: Routledge.

Soltero-Gonzalez, L., Escamilla, K., & Hopewell, S. (2010). A bilingual perspective on writing assessment: implications for teachers of emerging bilingual writers. In L. Goufan & P. Edwards.(Eds.). Best practices in ELL instruction. New York: Guilford Press, 222-244.

Rahat Naqvi is an associate professor of second language pedagogy in the Faculty of Education, University of Calgary, Canada. Her focused fields of expertise are in language and literacy pedagogy, identity issues, and emergent literacy in mainstream and bilingual settings.

Elaine Schmidt has extensive experience in the Canadian French immersion and bilingual education contexts and has worked as the international languages specialist for a large and innovative school district in Alberta. Her research interests include emerging language learning and literacy pedagogy and professional learning processes.

Marlene Krickhan has worked in various leadership capacities, in bilingual educational settings of Canada and abroad. As a school principal in the western province of Alberta, her current research interests include reconceptualizing bilingual teaching pedagogies, which are cross-curricular and cross-linguistic in nature, and which engage bilingual learners through inquiry-based orientations.