The year 2014 marks the 48th anniversary of TESOL’s first meetings as an organization.This anniversary also provides opportunities for reflection and an examination of our earliest professional roots. Such an examination reveals that 250 years before the formation of TESOL, English as a second language (ESL) was taught and learned in the United States in higher educational settings. Yet this history is relatively unknown in ESL circles. This article examines ESL teaching to Native American populations at colonial American colleges and focuses on three areas: the religious purpose of ESL teaching, a description of institutions involved in ESL education, and implications for modern TESOL.

The Religious Purpose of ESL Teaching

Integral to understanding ESL teaching at colonial American colleges is grasping its instructional aims. The teaching of English during this time was influenced by the fact that language acquisition was not always the educator’s primary goal. Rather, English acquisition was often viewed as a gateway to further desired religious, political, and social changes (Glenn, 2011). This perspective is shown, earnest, if patronizing, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony seal, which shows an American Indian below the biblical quote, Acts 16:9, “Come over and help us” (Glenn, 2011, p. 20). This viewpoint is also demonstrated by The Virginia Company’s 1606 charter, stating their desire to spread “Christian religion to such people, as yet live in darkness and miserable ignorance of…God…[and] may in time bring…[those]…living in those parts, to human civility, and to a settled and quiet government” (Szasz, 2007, p. 46).

This religious focus impacted ESL instruction, both in the methods and materials used. Early ESL teachers saw their instruction as an outgrowth of the Christian missionary mandate, as evidenced by their main source of funding, The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (Glenn, 2011). Teaching and assessment methods often showed a direct connection between English instruction and the religious nature of the teaching, with the memorization of prayers and the translation of Bible passages seen as valid evidence of language proficiency (Szasz, 2007).

Institutions Related to ESL Teaching

The history of the earliest chartered American college relates directly to its religious ESL focus. The school also is connected to the seminal figure of Pocahontas. Long after the historically disputed incident concerning Pocahontas saving John Smith, Pocahontas was kidnapped, after which she learned English, married John Rolfe, and moved to Henricus, Virginia (Woodward, 1969). In 1616, Pocahontas went with her husband, John Rolfe, and others to England to raise money for the Virginia Company. The group also requested funds for building a college in Henricus to be called Henrico College. The college was meant to educate both Native Americans and white settlers, and it was designed to have a significant English teaching focus. King James I granted a royal charter, the first in the American colonies, and after the tragic death of Pocahontas, monies for the college poured in (Woodward, 1969).

Notwithstanding Henrico College’s firm financial base, it never came into existence. Tensions between the English settlers and native residents arose. The reported practice of some settlers in Henricus of capturing native children to teach them English and baptize them exacerbated these tensions (Szasz, 2007). These simmering tensions boiled over with the 1622 Virginia Massacre, when American Indian nations attacked Virginia settlements, killing more than 300. John Rolfe was killed, and the town of Henricus, along with plans for a college, were destroyed (Woodward, 1969).

Harvard, and Dartmouth, and the College of William and Mary

But not all colleges’ attempts at ESL higher education in America failed to launch. Three colleges where instruction took place included Harvard University, Dartmouth College, and the College of William and Mary.

Harvard’s funding, charter, and American Indian school are all evidence of an ESL focus. In 1642, the college had significant funding challenges, and to solicit donations the college wrote New Englands [sic] First Fruits: In respect to the Indians, etc. This pamphlet emphasized Harvard’s role as an institution for religious education, but more specifically the desire to use the funds raised for the teaching and conversion of Native Americans. The pamphlet secured the necessary funds, but no more than a handful of Native American students received English instruction there (Szasz, 2007). This is despite Harvard’s 1650 charter’s call for “the education of English and Indian youth of this country in knowledge and godliness” (Morison, 1963, p. 248), the creation of the Indian School for housing, and tuition remittances for American Indian students. But due to the ravages of disease on student populations, low enrollment, cultural barriers and misunderstandings, and other factors, “it proved ineffectual to the ends proposed” (as cited in Glenn, 2011, p. 22).

Similarly, Dartmouth College’s initial purpose concerning ESL education is exemplified in the life of one of its main founders, Samson Occom, an ESL learner, ESL teacher, and religious preacher. His 1769 fundraising tour touting Dartmouth’s focus on American Indian education was successful enough that the school was adequately funded largely due to his efforts (Calloway, 2010). This focus on American Indian education is exhibited in its 1769 charter, stating, “for the education & instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing & all parts of Learning…and also of English Youth.” (as cited in Calloway, 2010, p. 22). It is worth noting that Dartmouth’s charter lists Indian students first, and Dartmouth was originally conceived of as more of an American Indian school than a White school. However, extensive American Indian education never took place for similar reasons as at Harvard. Over time, Occom became disillusioned with the college as fewer and fewer American Indian students attended (Calloway, 2010). And funds raised for American Indian students, for reasons much like Harvard’s, often did not directly reach native students.

The colonial college where American Indian ESL education took place most successfully was the College of William and Mary, considered to be a continuation of Henrico College. The ESL bent of the school can be seen both in the college charter and statutes. The 1693 charter vows that"the Christian faith may be propagated amongst the Western Indians” (Szasz, 2007, p. 67). This purpose is clearly specified in the college statues: "Teach the Indian boys to read, and write" (Szasz, p. 74).

The college opened in 1693, and by 1711 Native American students were granted tuition remittances. The college’s commitment to American Indian education was demonstrated in 1723 when it opened its own American Indian school, called the Brafferton School. Of all the colonial colleges that had programs for American Indian students, it was the most successful, in part due to the teaching efforts of Charles Griffin, a well-liked and compassionate teacher. However, at most only 20 students at a time attended the Brafferton School, and enrollment was inconsistent. It was closed in 1779 and never reopened (Szasz, 2007).

In summary, early college efforts towards ESL education were not successful on a large scale. Although there are remarkable stories concerning individual learners, few ESL learners received significant instruction due to factors including the spread of disease, student dropout rates, and the culturally novel concept of “school.” Ironically, the lasting impact of this instruction is that it has had a tendency to increase college donations.

Implications

In short, ESL teaching in American higher education is not a new phenomenon but has existed for more than 300 years. The stated purpose of ESL instruction was integral for the creation of Harvard and Dartmouth, and ESL instruction took place at the Brafferton School at The College of William and Mary for more than 50 years.

Nevertheless, is also important to view the downsides of this early history. Cultural misunderstandings, declining student welfare, and mismatches between fundraising and the implementation of funds marred this period. Such issues are still relevant today. Do intensive English programs and costly international student tuition act as institutional “cash cows,” where the monies gained do not benefit the students involved? Are student goals and educational aims mismatched? Do we sometimes still see ESL learning as not just an important facet of education, but also as a moral imperative? By reexamining our roots, we may more clearly see the full impact of ESL teaching in America and learn from past mistakes.

References

Calloway, C. G. (2010). The Indian history of an American institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth. Lebanon, NH: Dartmouth College Press.

Glenn, C. L. (2011). American Indian/first nation schooling: From the colonial period to the present. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan Press.

Morison, S. E. (1963). The founding of Harvard college. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Szasz, M. C. (2007). Indian education in the American colonies (1607–1783). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Woodward, G. S. (1969). Pocahontas. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.