Scripted literacy programs are frequently used with designated English learners (ELs) as an intervention to address below–grade-level reading comprehension. Most literacy programs lack an explicit focus on oral language, vocabulary in use, and immersive writing, needed areas to improve reading comprehension and English proficiency among designated ELs. Literacy interventions often work in tandem with English as a second language (ESL) instructional delivery or as a substitute and are staffed with personnel trained in reading interventions, but do not necessarily involve the principles of English language development or multilingualism. In this case study, the researchers examine a literacy intervention and how it is interpreted and implemented by elementary reading specialists. Findings demonstrate that reading teachers following the literacy intervention protocol fostered oral language and vocabulary, yet the emphasis was on reading, with very little time focused on writing. Implications point to the need for reading programs to conceptualize their teaching within a framework of English language development and multilingualism, instead of defaulting to reading interventions alone. A mapping in collaboration with general education, ESL, and reading teachers is needed to foster congruence across literacy and language learning. The authors call upon stakeholders implementing literacy programs to conceptualize multilingual language and literacy resources that encompass oral language, vocabulary, and immersive writing.
1. Introduction
As the lead author of this study, I began this team inquiry thinking about literacy being foregrounded with greater utility, priority, and value over English language development instruction and any type of bilingual instruction. These experiences were drawn from my background as a former bilingual administrator when general education elementary teachers would defer identified English learner (EL) students to a reading specialist. I found few studies examining how reading specialists work with ELs and what content and instructional approaches were most commonplace (Plaisance et al., 2018; Roessingh, 2020). I journaled:
Literacy ate language. The battle between English as a second language (ESL) and literacy intervention teachers is real! Principals are always emphatic that a literacy/reading intervention supersedes any English language development (ELD) instruction and classroom teachers tell me that literacy interventions and ELD instruction are the same. The ESL teachers usually give in to the higher valued literacy curriculum, passing their ELs to the reading specialist. [Journal entry, July 1, 2011].
This vignette illustrates the power disequilibrium between different types of teachers and varying content foci. For teachers, there is an ongoing debate on who is best suited to meet the literacy and/or ELD needs of ELs, including the general education teacher, the ESL teacher, and the reading specialist. For the content, there is tension around ELD or literacy being the primary focus, or the misconception that they are the same versus interrelated (Plaisance et al., 2018). Yet in settings throughout the world where language learners attend, the likelihood of a reading specialist serving multilingual students is high. This study intends to address this gap by taking a deeper look into the instructional practices of reading specialists who implemented a literacy program called the Leveled Literacy Intervention (LLI) (Fountas & Pinnell, 2009, 2013) with and among elementary-aged ELs, a program heavily used in the United States and some other parts of the world. Further, LLI has been translated into Spanish for use in bilingual and dual language programs within the United States and in countries where the dominant language is Spanish. Internationally, classroom teachers and specialists support the literacy and language pursuits of its learners.
In this study, we leverage the already employed literacy program of LLI at an elementary school with designated ELs to understand how various components of the program align or not with research in relation to English language development instruction. Research in literacy instruction for designated ELs posits that the English language development components of oral language, vocabulary-in-use, and immersive writing must be purposefully integrated to augment access, engagement, and progress in language and literacy development (Baker et al., 2014; Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020b).
We examine a group of second- and sixth-grade designated EL students and their reading specialists to observe the degree to which essential English language development (ELD) components of oral language, vocabulary-in-use, and immersive writing are employed during small group literacy interventions. We discuss the teachers' understanding of literacy and language and forward implications for improving literacy practices within elementary schools for designated ELs. Given the advancing policies for the science of reading, which exclude key components of literacy and can omit the mitigating role of language learning, this study is timely. We pose this research question:
"How do elementary reading teachers implement a literacy intervention with designated ELs identified as struggling readers?"
2. Literature Review and Conceptual Framework
Literacy is defined as “being able to interpret text and to write,” but newer definitions are expanding as we learn more about the interrelationships with reading and writing and all the different ways students in this generation are negotiating their relationships with various forms of text and what constitutes text (National Council of Teachers of English, 2020, p. 1). A subset of literacy is reading, the capacity to interpret printed text to ascertain meaning (Fountas & Pinnell, 2009, 2013). Oftentimes the terms literacy and reading suffer from the same conflation of English language development and literacy. The distinction between literacy and reading is important as it informs the duties and the content focus of a reading specialist: Are they teaching reading and writing (literacy) or just reading? Importantly, many programs that schools adopt have the naming convention of a “literacy program,” but in content and practice the focus is reading.
The National Reading Panel (NRP)'s (1997) study influenced the literacy landscape as it asserted the need for a science of reading focused on phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. In contestation of the exclusion of designated ELs in the studies, the National Literacy Panel (NLP) (2002) articulated how literacy is different for ELs. Baker et al. (2014) later conducted a comprehensive review of reading development specifically for designated ELs and asserts that any English literacy instruction for ELs should include three intersecting English language development constructs—oral language development (Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020b; Renn & Morita-Mullaney, 2018; Solari & Gerber, 2008); academic vocabulary-in-use (word study) (Carlo et al., 2004; Nelson et al., 2011); and regularly structured times to develop second language reading and writing skills through immersive writing opportunities (Lesaux et al., 2014). These three components nested within a larger aim of literacy (as described in Figure 1) is what ELs need to improve their English language and English literacy development (Morita-Mullaney & Renn, 2017).
This article first appeared in TESOL Journal, early view, e718. For permission to use text from this article, please go to Wiley-Blackwelland click on "Request Permission" under "Article Tools."
“I’m feeling upset, and I can’t shake the feeling that I am so inadequate . . .” begins one teacher’s anonymous post on a Facebook group page. She continues with a detailed description of the issue she is having with one of her students, and she ends by asking for some kind of guidance on how to remedy the situation. From her post, it appears that she desperately needs advice but is only comfortable asking strangers on a social media board for their opinions about what to do. Apparently, there was no one at her school she could trustingly confide in to get the support she needed. Read more.
This blog is part of the TESOL Research Professional Council (RPC) Blog series.
I have been teaching EFL at higher education institutions in Turkey for more than a decade. One thing that became apparent to me over the years was that it can be very stressful to be a young adult language learner. The year 2019 was a particularly challenging one for those working and studying at Turkish universities. In Turkey, there was a sudden rise in the suicide rate, particularly among young people, according to news reports. This phenomenon did not leave the university unscarred. A conversation that I had with a colleague was particularly thought-provoking for me. She told me how powerless she felt and she had had no idea what her students had been going through. Read more.
As a consumer of social media, I have long been fascinated with memes, particularly those that relate to topics I am invested in, like teaching, literature, or composition. Memes, usually consisting of an image file overlaid by a short text, have become ubiquitous in popular culture. Many are based on images taken from films or TV shows, while others are based on a memorable photo or pair of photos. The humorous text references current events or everyday experiences. Similar to memes, GIF files are omnipresent in social media, particularly reaction GIFs, which are very short video clips showing characters’ facial expressions. Both memes and GIFs can be found through a web search, but can also be created using free and easy-to-use web tools like Canva or Giphy.
As much as I enjoy consuming memes and GIFs in my own social media use, I also see great potential for these formats in supporting second language learners’ writing development. Read more.
ELT Basics is an invaluable resource for those seeking a straightforward, practical, and foundational understanding of English language teaching. This book covers a broad range of important topics, such as what it means to “know” a language, how people learn new languages, and what teachers can do to teach English effectively. Whether you’re looking for a basic understanding of ELT or considering a career in language teaching but want to know more first, this book will teach you about language acquisition as well as how to plan, instruct, and assess multilingual learners of English.
The increase in the number of international students attending English-dominant schools brings benefits as well as challenges for institutions. Shapiro, Farrelly, and Tomaš provide a lively, informative discussion that answers the questions instructors commonly ask when seeking to ensure success for these students: What do I do to help students be successful in U.S. academic culture? How can I ensure that the content for my course is comprehensible to students who are still learning English? How do I design assignments and assessments that are fair while still acknowledging the difficulty of doing academic work in a second or foreign language? How might I treat international students as a linguistic and cultural asset in the classroom, and help them to become institutionally integrated?
Newcomers are students who have recently immigrated to a new country, may be learning English as an additional language, and may have varying levels of English proficiency. This guide introduces five key areas of consideration when planning instruction to meet the unique social-emotional, linguistic, cultural, academic, and programming needs of multilingual learners of English who are newcomers. It includes strategies and best practices for language assessment and academic instruction through the proficiency levels, and guidance on how to advocate for effective newcomer education.
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